Othello

Othello’s Identity 

Othello was written at the beginning of the seventeenth century (1603–1604), during a period of deep political and security anxiety in England and across Europe. The play appeared at the moment of transition from Queen Elizabeth I to King James I, a change that raised fears of political instability, hidden plots, and divided loyalties. At the same time, European society was still shaped by a long history of conflict with the Muslim world, from the Crusades and the Ottoman expansion to the fall of Granada in 1492. Although Islamic rule in al-Andalus ended in 1492, the Moriscos remained in Spain under constant suspicion until their expulsion between 1609 and 1614. 

Within this historical context, Othello’s identity is intentionally left unclear. He can be understood as a Morisco through his description as a Moor, or as a Berber from the North African Barbary Coast, especially through Iago’s racist insult describing him as a “Barbary horse.” In early modern Europe, there was little distinction between Moriscos, Berbers, and North Africans; they were commonly grouped under broad and imprecise labels such as Moors or Barbarians. 

The visit of the Moroccan ambassador Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud to London in 1600–1601, which lasted six months, was a widely noted cultural and political event, and Shakespeare would have been fully aware of it. The ambassador was a Muslim, dark-skinned, well-educated diplomat sent by Sultan Aḥmad al-Manṣūr to negotiate a military and commercial alliance with Elizabeth I against Spain, including the exchange of weapons and military supplies. Commercial relations between England and Morocco had been flourishing for nearly fifty years, and England had become highly sensitive to any secret alliances or arms trade, especially regarding potassium nitrate (saltpeter), a key ingredient in gunpowder, much of which came from North Africa. In this political climate, the Moroccans were increasingly viewed as a security threat, to the extent that Elizabeth I banned their entry into England.

Shakespeare’s Treatment of Race 

In early European societies, the term “foreigner” applied to anyone who did not conform to prevailing cultural and religious norms, whether in terms of color, origin, or faith. Even if such a person served the state with exceptional skill, as Othello does while leading Venice’s defense against the Ottoman invasion, or even if he practiced Christianity like the rest of society, he remained, in the eyes of Europeans, an outsider, different from them and unfit for full integration into the social fabric. In Othello, this tension is embodied in the character of Othello: a respected and trusted leader, yet perpetually “marked as the other,” his identity external to a society that fears and doubts him.

Iago exploits this social perception against Othello through repeated racist language, most famously in his line: “an old black ram is tupping your white ewe.” In this phrase, Iago links blackness to animalistic instinct and danger, transforming Othello and Desdemona’s love from an emotional bond into a social threat. Iago repeatedly invokes blackness in his speeches to Brabantio and other characters, turning it into a constant symbol of danger, difference, and potential threat. Othello’s jealousy is believed to be partially influenced by European stereotypes about black people, in which blackness is associated with sexual and instinctive danger; consequently, Desdemona’s reputation appears “begrimed and black” in the eyes of society. Superficially, blackness seems to justify the loss of innocence or purity in Othello and Desdemona’s relationship, linking the white woman to the “otherness” feared by European society.

However, the play reveals that this relationship is not the natural outcome of Othello’s own racial mindset or heritage, but rather the result of the cruel manipulation of a white character, Iago, who exploits racist fears and plants doubt in Othello’s mind. Through this recurring racist discourse, Desdemona becomes associated with perceived “disrepute,” and Othello is turned into a socially inappropriate “foreign Moor,” morally suspect in Brabantio’s eyes.

This recurring racialized language and societal prejudice reflect historical European anxieties about Moors, Muslims, and foreign outsiders, demonstrating how racial and religious identity can be weaponized to instill suspicion and mistrust. For Othello, the tragedy of the play emerges from the accumulation of racism, social fear, and prejudice, turning society itself into a source of internal pressure despite his heroic service and loyalty to the state. In this way, Shakespeare shows that the outsider in European society remains perpetually excluded, and that Iago’s repeated emphasis on blackness can destroy reputation and identity even before any actual wrongdoing occurs, making Othello’s tragedy fundamentally social before it is personal.

The Ottoman Empire–Venetian Conflict 

After the Crusades, the Latin Kingdom of Cyprus was established under the rule of the French Lusignan dynasty, which governed the island for nearly three centuries and maintained its European character in the eastern Mediterranean. The last ruler of this dynasty was Caterina Cornaro, a Venetian noblewoman who assumed the throne after the death of her husband, Giovanni Cornaro. Caterina’s rule was politically weak due to internal and external pressures, particularly from Venice, which sought to expand its influence on the island in 1489. Facing these pressures, Caterina abdicated the throne in favor of the Republic of Venice, ending the rule of the Lusignan dynasty. Cyprus thus officially came under Venetia. After the Crusades, the Latin Kingdom of Cyprus was established under the rule of the French Lusignan dynasty, which governed the island for nearly three centuries, maintaining control. This marked the beginning of the Venetian period, which lasted until the mid-sixteenth century.

During this period, the Ottoman Empire expanded following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, and Cyprus became a strategic target for controlling maritime routes and trade in the eastern Mediterranean, transforming the island into an important naval and commercial base. The Ottoman invasion of Cyprus began in 1570, with a bloody siege of Nicosia that ended in its fall and the massacre of most of its inhabitants, representing a major defeat for Venice on land. Subsequently, Venice participated in a Christian alliance with Spain and the Papacy at the naval Battle of Lepanto in 1571, where the Ottomans suffered a defeat at sea, yet this did not restore Venetian control over Cyprus. After this period, the island officially became part of the Ottoman Empire and remained so until the eighteenth century, while Venice remained an influential naval power but lost actual control of the island.

When Shakespeare wrote Othello around 1603–1604, he depicted Cyprus as a Venetian-controlled island threatened by the Ottomans, even though actual control of the island was Ottoman. This historical framework allowed the play to present Othello as a courageous leader defending the Christian state from external danger, while simultaneously creating an isolated environment that facilitates the intensification of jealousy and internal intrigue led by Iago, transforming the external conflict into a personal and social tragedy.

Cinthio’s Hecatommithi 

When Shakespeare drew on the story of Othello from Cinthio’s Hecatommithi, the text was not initially available in English. It was written in Italian and published in 1565, then circulated across Europe either through direct reading in Italian or through unofficial French translations that were common among educated English readers in the late sixteenth century. It is therefore likely that Shakespeare encountered the story either in the original Italian or through a widely circulated French version, long before any complete English translation appeared. This linguistic and cultural transmission played a crucial role in Shakespeare’s treatment of the source, as he approached it not as a fixed or authoritative text, but rather as raw material open to dramatic reshaping.

In terms of plot, the two stories share the same broad outline: a Moorish commander marries a white woman and falls victim to a malicious plot that leads to the murder of his innocent wife. However, the fundamental differences between the two texts reveal Shakespeare’s originality. In Cinthio’s tale, the characters are unnamed, and the Moor is portrayed as naturally hot-tempered, with his jealousy presented as direct and largely unquestioned. The narrative follows a conventional moral framework that condemns vice. In Othello, by contrast, Shakespeare gives his characters names and complex psychological depth, transforming jealousy from an innate flaw into the product of sustained linguistic manipulation and racialized insinuation orchestrated by Iago. Moreover, while Cinthio presents violence as immediate and largely unhesitating, Shakespeare prolongs the moment of doubt and exposes Othello’s inner conflict, turning his downfall into a psychological tragedy rather than merely a moral crime.

Early Performances and Censorship 

The earliest reliable record of a performance of Othello dates to November 1, 1604, when it was staged at the court of King James I under the title “The Moor of Venice.” This title was not merely descriptive; it directly foregrounded Othello’s racial identity. In the English imagination of the period, the term Moor referred to the non-European “other,” often associated with Muslims, Black people, or individuals from North Africa. The play’s rapid success led to frequent revivals throughout the seventeenth century, and it remained part of the English theatrical repertoire well into the eighteenth century. This longevity suggests that its central themes—jealousy, racism, and betrayal—resonated deeply with English social anxieties, rather than functioning simply as a distant story set in Venice or Cyprus.

Early versions of the play contained religious oaths commonly used in Shakespeare’s time, such as “By God’s blood” and “God’s wounds.” These expressions were part of everyday speech, especially in moments of anger or emotional intensity, and they reflect the linguistic realism of Elizabethan drama.

However, in 1606—approximately two years after the first performance of Othello—the English Parliament passed legislation known as The Act to Restrain Abuses of Players. This law criminalized the irreverent use of God’s name or sacred references on stage, as the state increasingly viewed the theatre as a powerful influence on the public and sought to prevent the “profanation” of religious language before general audiences. As a result, later publishers and theatre practitioners were forced to censor the text, replacing such oaths with milder expressions or removing them altogether. This legal intervention explains why early versions of Othello differ from later printed editions.